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Accumulation of Disadvantages: Prevalence and Categories of Old-Age Social Exclusion in Belgium

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Abstract

This paper focuses on the prevalence and measurement of old-age social exclusion. Currently there is limited knowledge of the prevalence of old-age social exclusion in Belgium. Although studies have already shown that older adults can experience exclusion in more than one dimension, the multidimensional nature of social exclusion is often lost when constructing a scale. Consequently, this paper’s aim is twofold. First, it examines the prevalence of different dimensions of old-age social exclusion in Flanders and Brussels and seeks to demonstrate the influence of applying different measurement thresholds. Second, this study develops an old-age social exclusion measure that preserves its multidimensionality. Descriptive and Latent Class Analysis were performed on the Belgian Ageing Studies data (2008–2014), a survey among home-dwelling older adults (60 + years) (N = 20,275; 80 municipalities). Findings revealed that older adults are mainly digitally excluded and excluded from the neighbourhood, civic participation, and social relations. More than 60% older adults experience exclusion in two or more dimensions. The use of different thresholds, however, leads to different interpretations concerning the prevalence of social exclusion. Results of the Latent Class Analysis revealed four categories of old-age exclusion: those at “low risk”, “the non-participating financially excluded”, “the environmentally excluded” and the “severely excluded”. The discussion emphasizes the importance of preserving a multidimensional perspective when studying social exclusion. When addressing old-age exclusion, policy should be sensitive to the diverse categories and realize that one-size-fits-all policies and interventions are no solution.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the four anonymous reviewers for the valuable suggestions on this article. We acknowledge the provincial and local governments of the participating municipalities for their support and cooperation throughout the research. We thank the older volunteers for their commitment throughout the research.

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Appendix: Operationalization of Indicators of Old-Age Social Exclusion

Appendix: Operationalization of Indicators of Old-Age Social Exclusion

Dimension of social exclusion

Subdimension/indicators

Exclusion from civic participation

No cultural participation

Did not attend any of the twenty cultural events at least once in the preceding year

No sports participation

Does not engage in any sports activity

No social participation

Is not a member of at least one of the twenty associations

No volunteering participation

Does not engage in any of the ten volunteering activities

Exclusion from social relations

Very emotionally lonely

Derived from the six items scale for loneliness (De Jong Gierveld and Tilburg 2006). If respondents indicated for each of the three emotional loneliness indicators that they were lonely, they were assessed as very emotionally lonely

Very socially lonely

Derived from the six items scale for loneliness (De Jong Gierveld and Tilburg 2006). If respondents indicated for each of the three social loneliness variables that they were lonely, they were assessed as very socially lonely

Exclusion from social contacts

If respondents did not have at least once-a-month contact with their children, grandchildren (nuclear family), brothers, sisters, other family members (extended family), friends or neighbours they were considered as excluded from social contacts

Exclusion from social support

If respondents could not count on support of their partner, daughter, son, daughter-in-law, son-in-law, grandchildren (nuclear family), sister, brother, other family members (extended family), friends or neighbours they were considered as excluded from social support

Exclusion from services

Exclusion from health services

Respondents were considered as excluded from health services if they lacked a general practitioner and pharmacy in their neighbourhood

Exclusion from mobility services

Respondents were considered as excluded from mobility services if they lacked sitting benches, public toilets, public transport, bus stops and pedestrian crossings in their neighbourhood

Exclusion from leisure services

Respondents were considered as excluded from leisure services if they lacked a service centre, a sports centre, a swimming pool, a library, a neighbourhood centre, a movie theatre, a theatre and a pub in their neighbourhood

Exclusion from basic services

Respondents were considered as excluded from basic services if they lacked a grocery store, a bank, a butcher’s shop, a bakery shop, a mobile shop and a post office in their neighbourhood

Exclusion from financial resources

Very low financial resources

Respondents were considered as having very low financial resources if their net monthly household income was between €500 and €999

Difficult to manage with the household income

Respondents were considered as excluded if they indicated if it was (very) hard to get by financially

Neighbourhood exclusion

Feelings of unsafety

Respondents were considered as having feelings of unsafety if they (totally) agreed on all of the eight indicators of the EFU scale (De Donder et al. 2015)

Low enjoyment living in the neighbourhood

Respondents with low enjoyment of living in the neighbourhood indicated that they (totally) did not like living in their neighbourhood

Low feelings of connection to the neighbourhood

Respondents with low feelings of connection to the neighbourhood indicated that they felt little to no connection with their neighbourhood

Exclusion from decent housing

Dwelling is too big

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Dwelling is in a bad condition/poorly kept

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Presence of stairs before entering the dwelling

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Thresholds (inside or outside) are too high

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Presence of stairs inside the dwelling

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Need to take stairs when going to the toilet

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Dwelling is too expensive

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Dwelling is not burglar-proof

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Dwelling is not comfortable

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Dwelling is not sound-proof

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Dwelling is difficult to heat

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

There is a lack of facilities in the dwelling

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable

Ageism

When times get rough, elderly people usually suffer worst

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

The elderly are a separate group in society with their own interests

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

Society is especially focused on youngsters, the interests of the elderly are not taken into account

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

Some people act like I don’t have anything left to contribute to society now that I’m older

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

I have this feeling that older people do not matter to society

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

The elderly should have much more of a say in what is being organised for them

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

Since I’m older, I have regularly noticed that people no longer take me seriously

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

I have the feeling that the aged are often being considered less important or treated unfairly compared to other groups of people

Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement

Digital exclusion

Respondents were assessed as being digitally excluded if they never used the Internet

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Van Regenmortel, S., De Donder, L., Smetcoren, AS. et al. Accumulation of Disadvantages: Prevalence and Categories of Old-Age Social Exclusion in Belgium. Soc Indic Res 140, 1173–1194 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1817-8

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