Abstract
This paper focuses on the prevalence and measurement of old-age social exclusion. Currently there is limited knowledge of the prevalence of old-age social exclusion in Belgium. Although studies have already shown that older adults can experience exclusion in more than one dimension, the multidimensional nature of social exclusion is often lost when constructing a scale. Consequently, this paper’s aim is twofold. First, it examines the prevalence of different dimensions of old-age social exclusion in Flanders and Brussels and seeks to demonstrate the influence of applying different measurement thresholds. Second, this study develops an old-age social exclusion measure that preserves its multidimensionality. Descriptive and Latent Class Analysis were performed on the Belgian Ageing Studies data (2008–2014), a survey among home-dwelling older adults (60 + years) (N = 20,275; 80 municipalities). Findings revealed that older adults are mainly digitally excluded and excluded from the neighbourhood, civic participation, and social relations. More than 60% older adults experience exclusion in two or more dimensions. The use of different thresholds, however, leads to different interpretations concerning the prevalence of social exclusion. Results of the Latent Class Analysis revealed four categories of old-age exclusion: those at “low risk”, “the non-participating financially excluded”, “the environmentally excluded” and the “severely excluded”. The discussion emphasizes the importance of preserving a multidimensional perspective when studying social exclusion. When addressing old-age exclusion, policy should be sensitive to the diverse categories and realize that one-size-fits-all policies and interventions are no solution.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the four anonymous reviewers for the valuable suggestions on this article. We acknowledge the provincial and local governments of the participating municipalities for their support and cooperation throughout the research. We thank the older volunteers for their commitment throughout the research.
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Appendix: Operationalization of Indicators of Old-Age Social Exclusion
Appendix: Operationalization of Indicators of Old-Age Social Exclusion
Dimension of social exclusion | Subdimension/indicators | |
---|---|---|
Exclusion from civic participation | No cultural participation | Did not attend any of the twenty cultural events at least once in the preceding year |
No sports participation | Does not engage in any sports activity | |
No social participation | Is not a member of at least one of the twenty associations | |
No volunteering participation | Does not engage in any of the ten volunteering activities | |
Exclusion from social relations | Very emotionally lonely | Derived from the six items scale for loneliness (De Jong Gierveld and Tilburg 2006). If respondents indicated for each of the three emotional loneliness indicators that they were lonely, they were assessed as very emotionally lonely |
Very socially lonely | Derived from the six items scale for loneliness (De Jong Gierveld and Tilburg 2006). If respondents indicated for each of the three social loneliness variables that they were lonely, they were assessed as very socially lonely | |
Exclusion from social contacts | If respondents did not have at least once-a-month contact with their children, grandchildren (nuclear family), brothers, sisters, other family members (extended family), friends or neighbours they were considered as excluded from social contacts | |
Exclusion from social support | If respondents could not count on support of their partner, daughter, son, daughter-in-law, son-in-law, grandchildren (nuclear family), sister, brother, other family members (extended family), friends or neighbours they were considered as excluded from social support | |
Exclusion from services | Exclusion from health services | Respondents were considered as excluded from health services if they lacked a general practitioner and pharmacy in their neighbourhood |
Exclusion from mobility services | Respondents were considered as excluded from mobility services if they lacked sitting benches, public toilets, public transport, bus stops and pedestrian crossings in their neighbourhood | |
Exclusion from leisure services | Respondents were considered as excluded from leisure services if they lacked a service centre, a sports centre, a swimming pool, a library, a neighbourhood centre, a movie theatre, a theatre and a pub in their neighbourhood | |
Exclusion from basic services | Respondents were considered as excluded from basic services if they lacked a grocery store, a bank, a butcher’s shop, a bakery shop, a mobile shop and a post office in their neighbourhood | |
Exclusion from financial resources | Very low financial resources | Respondents were considered as having very low financial resources if their net monthly household income was between €500 and €999 |
Difficult to manage with the household income | Respondents were considered as excluded if they indicated if it was (very) hard to get by financially | |
Neighbourhood exclusion | Feelings of unsafety | Respondents were considered as having feelings of unsafety if they (totally) agreed on all of the eight indicators of the EFU scale (De Donder et al. 2015) |
Low enjoyment living in the neighbourhood | Respondents with low enjoyment of living in the neighbourhood indicated that they (totally) did not like living in their neighbourhood | |
Low feelings of connection to the neighbourhood | Respondents with low feelings of connection to the neighbourhood indicated that they felt little to no connection with their neighbourhood | |
Exclusion from decent housing | Dwelling is too big | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable |
Dwelling is in a bad condition/poorly kept | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Presence of stairs before entering the dwelling | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Thresholds (inside or outside) are too high | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Presence of stairs inside the dwelling | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Need to take stairs when going to the toilet | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Dwelling is too expensive | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Dwelling is not burglar-proof | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Dwelling is not comfortable | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Dwelling is not sound-proof | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Dwelling is difficult to heat | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
There is a lack of facilities in the dwelling | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that this statement was rather or completely applicable | |
Ageism | When times get rough, elderly people usually suffer worst | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement |
The elderly are a separate group in society with their own interests | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
Society is especially focused on youngsters, the interests of the elderly are not taken into account | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
Some people act like I don’t have anything left to contribute to society now that I’m older | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
I have this feeling that older people do not matter to society | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
The elderly should have much more of a say in what is being organised for them | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
Since I’m older, I have regularly noticed that people no longer take me seriously | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
I have the feeling that the aged are often being considered less important or treated unfairly compared to other groups of people | Respondents were considered excluded if they indicated that they (completely) agreed with this statement | |
Digital exclusion | Respondents were assessed as being digitally excluded if they never used the Internet |
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Van Regenmortel, S., De Donder, L., Smetcoren, AS. et al. Accumulation of Disadvantages: Prevalence and Categories of Old-Age Social Exclusion in Belgium. Soc Indic Res 140, 1173–1194 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1817-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1817-8