Abstract
In 2015, females accounted for 82.2% of Board Certified Behavior Analysts (Nosik & Grow, 2015, “Prominent Women in Behavior Analysis: An Introduction,” The Behavior Analyst, 38, 225–227). Females represent most certificants, yet their presence in research and on editorial boards for peer-reviewed journals is lower than males’ presence (Li, Curiel, Pritchard, & Poling, 2018, “Participation of Women in Behavior Analysis Research: Some Recent and Relevant Data,” Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11, 160–164). Various contingencies are certainly involved, which may include instances of sexism or gender-based discrimination. Despite behavior analysis having the means to change contingencies that reinforce sexism, the discipline is not adequately taking cultural contingencies into consideration. As a result, behavior analysis is simultaneously part of the problem and the potential solution. Moreover, behavior analysis has not adequately studied sexism and its subtle topographies despite sexism being a long-existing behavioral phenomenon. The purpose of the current paper is to provide a behavioral account of sexism, particularly in the field of behavior analysis. Feminism as a culture and views of feminism from males and females will be further examined, as well as their implications for behavior change. Finally, recommendations for cultural and individual change will be discussed to promote gender equity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aronson, P. (2003). Feminists or “postfeminists”? Young women’s attitudes toward feminism and gender relations. Gender and Society, 17, 903–922. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243203257145.
Caffrey, C. (2018). Fourth-wave feminism. In Salem Press encyclopedia (p. 3). Clermont, FL: Lakeside Publishing.
Chamberlain, P. (2016). Affective temporality: Towards a fourth wave. Gender and Education, 28, 458–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1169249.
Dixon, M. R., Reed, D. D., Smith, T., Belisle, J., & Jackson, R. E. (2015). Research rankings of behavior analytic graduate training programs and their faculty. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8, 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-015-0057-0.
Drury, B. J., & Kaiser, C. R. (2014). Allies against sexism: The role of men in confronting sexism. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 637–652. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12083.
Dyer, S., & Hurd, F. (2016). Changing perceptions about feminists and (still not) claiming a feminist identity. Gender and Education, 30, 435–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1216524.
Eliezer, D., & Major, B. (2012). It’s not your fault: The social costs of claiming discrimination on behalf of someone else. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 15, 487–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211432894.
Favell, J. E. (2015). A career in behavior analysis: Notes from the journey. The Behavior Analyst, 38, 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0037-2.
Frazer, P., & Leslie, J. (2014). Feedback and goal-setting interventions to reduce electricity use in the real world. Behavior and Social Issues, 23, 20–34. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v.23i0.4324.
Glenn, S. S. (1988). Contingencies and metacontingencies: Toward a synthesis of behavior analysis and cultural materialism. The Behavior Analyst, 11(2), 161–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392470.
Glenn, S. S. (1989). Verbal behavior and cultural practices. Behavior Analysis and Social Action, 7(1), 10–15.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03406102.
Glenn, S. S. (2004). Individual behavior, culture, and social change. The Behavior Analyst, 27(2), 133–151.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393175.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.70.3.491.
Graf, N., Brown, A., & Patten, E. (2018, April 9). The narrowing, but persistent, gender gap in pay. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/09/gender-pay-gap-facts/
Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 366–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021847.
Holland, J. G. (1978). Behaviorism: Part of the problem or part of the solution? Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11(1), 163–174. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-163.
Issitt, M. L., & Flynn, S. (2018). Feminism debate. In Salem Press encyclopedia (p. 3). Clermont, FL: Lakeside Publishing.
Korenman, J. (2017). Women’s/gender studies programs & research centers. Retrieved from https://userpages.umbc.edu/~korenman/wmst/programs.html
Kroløkke, C., & Sørenson, A. S. (2005). Three waves of feminism: From suffragettes to grrls. In C. Kroløkke & A. S. Sørenson (Eds.), Contemporary gender communication theories and analyses: From silence to performance (pp. 1–23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
LeBlanc, L. A. (2015). My mentors and their influences on my career. The Behavior Analyst, 38, 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0035-4.
Li, A., Curiel, H., Pritchard, J., & Poling, A. (2018). Participation of women in behavior analysis research: Some recent and relevant data. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11, 160–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-0211-6.
Li, A., Gravina, N., Pritchard, J. K., & Poling, A. (2019). The gender pay gap for behavior analysis faculty. Behavior Analysis in Practice. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00347-4.
Macé, E. (2018). From patriarchy to composite gender arrangements? Theorizing the historicity of social relations of gender. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 25, 317–336. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxy018.
Mann, S. A., & Huffman, D. J. (2005). The decentering of second wave feminism and the rise of the third wave. Science & Society, 69, 56–91. https://doi.org/10.1521/siso.69.1.56.56799.
McSweeney, F. K. (2015). A challenging and satisfying career in basic science. The Behavior Analyst, 38, 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0040-7.
McSweeney, F. K., Donahoe, P., & Swindell, S. (2000). Women in applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 23, 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03392015.
McSweeney, F. K., & Swindell, S. (1998). Women in the experimental analysis of behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 21(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03391963.
Miller, N. D., Meindl, J. N., & Caradine, M. (2016). The effects of bin proximity and visual prompts of recycling in a university building. Behavior and Social Issues, 25, 4–10. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v.25i0.6141.
Munro, E. (2013). Feminism: A fourth wave? Political Insight, 4, 22–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-9066.12021.
Myers, D. L. (1993). Participation by women in behavior analysis. II: 1992. The Behavior Analyst, 16(1), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392613.
Namy, S., Heilman, B., Stich, S., Crownover, J., Leka, B., & Edmeades, J. (2015). Changing what it means to “become a man”: Participants’ reflections on a school-based programme to redefine masculinity in the Balkans. Culture, Health, & Sexuality, 17, 206–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058/2015.1070434.
Nosik, M. R., & Grow, L. L. (2015). Prominent women in behavior analysis: An introduction. The Behavior Analyst, 38, 225–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0032-7.
Pétursdóttir, A. I. (2015). Influence on my early academic career. The Behavior Analyst, 38, 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0039-0.
Poling, A., Grossett, D., Fulton, B., Roy, S., Beechler, S., & Wittkopp, C. (1983). Participation by women in behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 6(2), 145–152.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392393.
Precopio, R. F., & Ramsey, L. R. (2016). Dude looks like a feminist! Moral concerns and feminism among men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 18, 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000042.
Rehfeldt, R. A. (2018). Lessons from a female academician: Some further reflections on a glass ceiling. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11, 181–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-0218-z.
Rudman, L. A., Mescher, K., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2012). Reactions to gender egalitarian men: Perceived feminization due to stigma-by-association. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 16, 572–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212461160.
Ruiz, M. R. (2003). Inconspicuous sources of behavioral control: The case of gendered practices. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4(1), 12–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100005.
Ruiz, M. R. (1998). Personal agency in feminist theory: Evicting the illusive dweller. The Behavior Analyst, 21(2), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391962.
Sexism. (2010). New Oxford American dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Simon, J. L., Morris, E. K., & Smith, N. G. (2007). Trends in women’s participation at the meeting for the Association for Behavior Analysis: 1975–2005. The Behavior Analyst, 3(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03392154.
Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden two. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. Acton, MS: Copley Publishing Group.
Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York, NY: Knopf.
Skinner, B. F. (1976). Walden Two revisited. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.
Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 213(4507), 501–504. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7244649.
Skinner, B. F. (1984). The evolution of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 41(2), 217–221. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1984.41-217.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1987). Contingencies for progress as a female behavior analyst. Behavior Analysis and Social Action, 6(1), 29–30.
Tagliabue, M., & Sandaker, I. (2019). Societal well-being: Embedding nudges in sustainable cultural practices. Behavior and Social Issues. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-019-0002-x.
Taylor, B. A. (2015). Stereo knobs and swing sets: Falling in love with the science of behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 38, 283–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0041-6.
Traub, A. J., & Van Hoose Garofalo, A. (2019). #MeToo: A brief review. Employee Relations Law Journal, 44(4), 4–7.
U.S. Department of Education. (2018). Sex discrimination frequently asked questions. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/frontpage/faq/sex.html#sexhar2
Vogeltanz, N. D., Sigmon, S. T., & Vickers, K. S. (1998). Feminism and behavior analysis: A framework for women’s health research and practice. In J. J. Plaud & G. H. Eifert (Eds.), From behavior theory to behavior therapy (pp. 269–293). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Wolpert, R. S. (2005). A multicultural feminist analysis of Walden Two. The Behavior Analyst Today, 6(3), 186–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100063.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Jennifer Zarcone and the reviewers for their thoughtful and helpful feedback throughout the revison process.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 64 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Baires, N.A., Koch, D.S. The Future Is Female (and Behavior Analysis): A Behavioral Account of Sexism and How Behavior Analysis Is Simultaneously Part of the Problem and Solution. Behav Analysis Practice 13, 253–262 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00394-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00394-x