Migrants are often exposed to various cultures when arriving to a host country. By interacting with diverse cultures, an individual undergoes an acculturation process in which one’s beliefs, customs, behaviours and identity are altered (Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006; Williams & Berry, 1991). During this interaction, one’s multidimensional sense of self can be influenced and can impact an individual’s psychological and sociocultural adaptation (Berry et al., 2006; Dion & Dion, 2001; Su & Costigan, 2009). Acquiring a balance in values and customs between one’s heritage and the culture of the host country can lead to healthy psychosocial adaptation; however, when there is an imbalance, acculturative stress can negatively impact one’s psychosocial wellbeing (Berry et al., 2006; McKenney, Pepler, Craig, & Connolly, 2006; Vega, Zimmerman, Gil, Warheit, & Apospori, 1993).

Acculturative stress can often result from difficulties integrating new societal systems, norms, values, and customs in an adaptive and balanced way. Integration challenges can lead to inter and intrapersonal concerns, including difficulties with self-esteem, perceived discrimination, and psychosocial stress, such as depressive, anxiety and somatic symptoms (Hynie, Guruge, & Shakya, 2012; Jibeen, 2011; Vega et al., 1993). Among adolescent-aged migrants these acculturative challenges can be particularly exacerbated. As migrant youth develop their sense of self, acculturative stress may add to inherent difficulties in identity formation, which can impact their mental health experiences and their ability to integrate into the host society (Su & Costigan, 2009).

As a source of support, the family system has been found to be a protective factor for migrant youth during the process of acculturation and integration (Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 2001; Sabatier & Berry, 2008). However, contrary to the means of resilience derived from the family system, family stressors can also generate psychosocial challenges which can result in negative academic, emotional and psychological outcomes for migrant youth (Patel, Clarke, Eltareb, Macciomei, & Wickham, 2016). Considering the importance of the family system during the process of integration and acculturation, this study focuses on the home-related factors migrant youth believe could foster a more supportive home environment while in the host country. Current research is limited in its understanding of the factors that contribute to migrant youth wellbeing in the home environment through the perspective of adolescents themselves. This study will assist in creating a deeper understanding of migrant youths’ needs within the family context.

Literature Review

From the existing literature, there are three central concepts concerning what newcomer youth want to improve within their home environment—greater autonomy, better communication and increased parental support.

Greater Autonomy

In the process of immigration, newcomer parents carry their pre-established values that allow them to interact with their children in a particular way (Phinney, Ong, & Madden, 2000). The forms of socialization vary among families where some families may hold more collectivistic values versus those that may be considered individualistic.

Finding a Balance Between Cultural Identities

In collectivist cultures, there is a strong focus on interdependence among group members and an emphasis on obeying elders through expectations and obligations. In contrast, individualistic cultures emphasize the need for autonomy from and equality amongst parents and have less expectations from and obligations to the family unit (Phinney et al., 2000). In relation to newcomer families, who are likely to experience a clash between the cultural values they carry and those of the host country, youth have found difficulties integrating their ethnic identity with national identity. Ethnic identity has been found to be a positive contributor to the psychological and social well-being of newcomer youth (Sabatier & Berry, 2008); however, the imbalance between ethnic and national identity can cause difficulties with sociocultural adaptation (Berry et al., 2006).

An imbalance of or inability to integrate ethnic and national identities can become a source of parent–youth conflict, particularly if youth begin to strive for a sense of autonomy during adolescence (Dennis, Basañez, & Farahmand, 2010; Phinney et al., 2000). Intergenerational conflict thus has the potential to be more prominent among newcomer families, which can decrease cohesion and affect the communication of values (Dennis et al., 2010; Wang, Kim, Anderson, Chen, & Yan, 2012).

Distribution of Authority

Difficulties around decision-making within a hierarchical family structure has also been found, particularly as the family becomes nuclear. Struggles may be introduced through negotiations between parents and children, as adult extended family members can no longer reinforce the presence of cultural authority figures (Dennis et al., 2010; Kwak & Berry, 2001; Perreira, Chapman, & Stein, 2006). Differences between newcomer and non-newcomer youth and their parents evidence greater generational discrepancies among newcomer families when it comes to parental authority compared to non-newcomer families (Kwak & Berry, 2001). A possible reason for this may be due to a “rapid weakening of strong traditional family ties and of extensive kinship network” (Kwak & Berry, 2001, p. 160), which could decrease traditional perspectives of authority.

Better Communication

Adolescents are more exposed to the host culture through their involvement in the school and community. Newcomer parents, however, are more likely to be involved in employment sectors where learning English is limited through lack of contact with native English speakers, which only allows them to gain a basic understanding of the English language (Ong & Hee, 1994; Tseng & Fuligni, 2000). As adolescents become more proficient in English certain conflicts may thus begin to arise between youth and their parents.

Shifts in Language as Creating Tension

Traditional language can be used as a tool to communicate relational ties within the family system. When the family’s ethnic language, however, is not spoken in the home a family’s sense of cohesion may decrease (Tseng & Fuligni, 2000). A study by Tseng and Fuligni (2000), which measured newcomer parent–adolescent language-use and relationships, found that youth who spoke to their parents in a language other than their native-tongue were more emotionally distant from their parents in comparison to their counterparts. Language shifts can decrease emotional ties in the family, in addition to restricting forms of communication. Thus, open and direct communication may be beneficial in facilitating effective communication between parents and youth which can allow for concerns and expectations to be properly expressed (Perreira et al., 2006).

Increased Parental Support

One of the major shifts that occur as newcomers migrate is the change in the family structure and composition. As the country of origin is left behind, the newcomer family becomes nuclear and extended family is no longer a large aspect of familial support (Anisef & Kilbride, 2003; Kwak & Berry, 2001; Merz, Özeke-Kocabas, Oort, & Schuengel, 2009). Newcomer youth have been found to experience a decrease in the accessibility and quality of familial support after immigration. As extended family is minimized, the immediate newcomer family system becomes all the more important in aiding youth in their development and means of acculturation.

Impacts on Support and Cohesion

Following migration, youth often experience a loss of personal and social support whereby they learn to rely more on the immediate nuclear family (Adserà & Tienda, 2012). In attempts to provide support, newcomer parents are often found working menial jobs requiring long hours, making it difficult for parents to be present for and available to their children (Gaytan, Carhill, & Suárez-Orozco, 2007). As a possible result of this, the psychological well-being of youth can be affected through the lack of parental involvement in youths’ lives (Dawson, Perez, & Suárez-Orozco, 2012).

Youth are found to be aware and understand the daily pressures experienced by their parents. Although youth understand the challenges experienced by their parents, they can become reluctant in asking their parents for help and can speak restrictively about their concerns (Janzen & Ochocka, 2003), which further limits communication and cohesion of the family system.

Parenting Styles

The style of parenting has been found to affect the psychological, emotional and social adaptation of newcomer youth, in addition to the degree of support felt by youth (Chen, Gance-Cleveland, Kopak, Haas, & Gillmore, 2010; Johnson-Motoyama, Dettlaff, & Finno, 2012). Studies have evidenced greater parental warmth as being significantly related to less experiences of depression and fewer psychological symptoms in youth (Kuczyński, Navara, & Boiger, 2010; Shucksmith, Hendry, & Glendinning, 1995). Contrarily, symptoms of depression were found to increase among newcomer youth with higher levels of parental overprotection (Lim, Yeh, Liang, Lau, & McCabe, 2009). Considering the challenges experienced by newcomer youth during the acculturation process, styles of parenting can either positively or negatively contribute to the psychological development and sense of support experienced by youth.

Methodology

Group interviews were conducted with newcomer youth participants to explore the factors they believed would make their home environment more supportive. Collected data was analyzed using concept mapping (Trochim, 1989).

Concept Mapping

As a mixed method, concept mapping simultaneously incorporates the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches to collectively answer a research question (Kane & Trochim, 2007). Qualitative methods, such as group interviews, are used to gather the perspectives and responses of participants related to a research question which are then organized and interpreted using statistical methods and later generated into a visual representation of the data (Kane & Trochim, 2007). Concept mapping provides participants with a rich opportunity to voice their opinions and to participate in the research process of collecting and organizing data which allows for a deeper understanding of the research question being examined (Kane & Trochim, 2007; Windsor, 2013).

Previously used in the context of public health, program development, and community-based research, concept mapping has been beneficial in creating a better understanding of group experiences (Ahmad, Mahmood, Pietkiewicz, McDonald, & Ginsburg, 2012; Burke et al., 2005; Ridings et al., 2011). Concept mapping includes particular steps in collecting and analyzing data, such as preparation, generation, structuring, representation, interpretation, and utilization. This study uses concept mapping as a method to gather perspectives of migrant youth about their experiences within the home environment. The steps taken in using concept mapping within the study are described below.

Procedure

Step 1: Preparation

Participants were recruited from a community centre via word-of-mouth, posters and a regional agency. Twelve youth participated in the study whom ranged between 15 and 18 years of age. Participants in the study were between grades 9 and 12 and were in their first Canadian school for 1 month to 2 years. Each participant had recently migrated to Canada within the last 2 years and were born in either Singapore, Syria, Colombia, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, or United Arab Emirates. English was the secondary language for all youth, as either Punjabi, Arabic or Spanish was the primary language spoken by participants. Only two participants did not speak any English. All youth lived in family structures consisting of immediate and extended family members.

This study focused on one research question that was posed during the group interviews, “What would help you at home?” All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study and only youth with received parental consent were included.

Step 2: Generation

All participants were divided into small groups of three. Interviews were conducted in the native language of each participant by research assistants fluent in the required language. Responses to the research question were then generated by participants in each group and were recorded on flipchart paper by a multilingual scribe. After responses were recorded by all groups, flipchart papers were displayed around the room. All participants then engaged in a larger group discussion regarding the generated responses. During this process, youth had an opportunity to clarify and elaborate their answers and also add responses to the data set.

Step 3: Structuring

Youth were engaged in the process of sorting collected data. Participants whom wished to assist with data sorting were asked to voluntarily return temporarily following the initial group interview. 10 of 12 youth whom participated in the initial interview returned and were each given the same list of statement responses developed during the group interview on a set of cards. Youth were then asked to independently categorize the responses. 15 responses for, “What would help you at home?” were identified, in total. Repetitive statement responses were not included in the data set.

Step 4: Representation

Concept mapping was used as a method to analyze the sorted responses. Concept mapping was completed in two steps to generate the categorical maps using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis (Kane & Trochim, 2007). Multidimensional scaling uses a similarity matrix which plots response statements on a “two-dimensional (X, Y) map” (Kane & Trochim, 2007, p. 87). The frequency at which a response was paired or grouped with other responses is seen through the distance between each response. Thus, if a response is close in proximity to other responses those responses were more often paired together by participants during the sorting phase. If a response is not close in proximity to another response these responses were not often paired together by participants during the sorting phase. The multidimensional scaling process also provides values between 0.0 and 1.0 for each individual response, which is known as a bridging index (Burke et al., 2005; Ridings et al., 2011). A response with a bridging index value between 0.0 and .25 indicates the response was paired with responses in closer proximity on the map; however, a response with a bridging index value between 0.75 and 1.0 indicates the response was paired with responses both in close and far proximity on the map. Multidimensional scaling is then followed by cluster analysis, which groups each separate statement on the X–Y axis map into “clusters of statements that aggregate to reflect similar concepts” (Kane & Trochim, 2007, p. 98). The use of cluster analysis allows for each statement to be carefully placed into clusters in which each response begins as its own cluster and is then merged with another cluster at each stage of the analysis (Burke et al., 2005; Ridings et al., 2011).

Step 5: Interpretation

The appropriate number of concept maps were chosen by the authors based on average bridging indices and similarities in concepts. Concept maps of 4, 3, and 2 were reviewed before deciding that the 3-cluster solution fit the data best. In this solution each cluster reflected content that was distinguishable from the statements in the other clusters. The 3-cluster solution also yielded lower bridging indices reflecting greater consistency in the groupings provided by participants to the statements. Based on qualitative and quantitative data, a 3-cluster map provided the best interpretability. Labels for each cluster were then generated by the authors based on participant discussions during the sorting phase and a review of the content within each cluster.

Step 6: Utilization

The generated concept map was then used to inform the purpose of this study, which is to identify the needs of newcomer youth in the home and the factors that could help improve the home experience. The concept map in the following section represents the perspectives of youth who participated in the study.

Results

Youth participants provided 15 unique responses to the question, “What would help you at home?” Responses are numbered from 1 to 15 and can be found in Table 1. A 3-cluster map, found in Fig. 1, seemed to represent the data best and are identified as follows: More Positive Feedback, Talking More, and Opening Home to My Friends. More Positive Feedback focused on the need for greater emotional support and feedback. Talking More reflected on youth wanting more bi-directional communication and understanding within the home environment. Opening Home to My Friends illustrated youth wanting to incorporate their home-life with lives in their schools and communities.

Table 1 Concept items and bridging values for concept map
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Fig. 1
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Concept map for, “What would help you at home?”

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More Positive Feedback

This concept focused on improvements to the family climate and the need for more positive feedback. The youth noted that “love” was fundamentally important and needed to be communicated to them. This response had the lowest bridging index for the concept at 0.23, suggesting that it was central to the content. In addition, the youth spoke about the desire to hear and have their family’s “values” and “encouragement” in their lives. These responses had moderate bridging indices at 0.46 and 0.48, respectively. Although the remaining responses had high bridging indices, at 0.73 and 1.00, they were important needs communicated by the youth concerning the importance of having “family time” and “rules”. While these responses were not central to the content of this concept they were identified by the youth and are important needs that should be recognized. Overall, this concept had a bridging index of 0.58 indicating a moderate level of conceptual consistency among responses.

Talking More

This concept focused on youths’ needs for more communication with family characterized by mutual respect, support and listening. The most central content for this concept was apparent in the response, “more understanding”, which had a bridging index of 0.00. The youth clearly saw the need for communication to be bidirectional and not one-sided. In addition to having “more respect” and “patience from parents” was the desire to have “no judgement” and “active listening”. These responses had low bridging indices ranging from 0.05 to 0.20. It should also be noted that the response, “comfort and support from family”, reflected a need that youth had to generally have closer, more open and influential relationships with their parents. This concept also had a low bridging index of 0.15, which was the lowest average bridging index of the concepts on the map.

Opening Home to My Friends

This concept had a focus on the inclusion of friends from outside of their home and possibly outside of their culture, into their home. Youth talked about the need for their parents to recognize that they had the “same interests” as other youth that their parents did not know, and that they wanted parents to “welcome their friends” so that they could continue their “friendship” with them outside of school and in the community. The responses in this concept had moderate bridging indices including 0.41, 0.57 and 0.70 respectively, with an average of 0.56 indicating that the responses may have been sorted by youth with responses in other concepts.

Discussion

Youth in the study identified three main concepts—more positive feedback, talking more, and open home to friends—that were believed to improve their situation in the home environment.

More Positive Feedback

Newcomer youth described wanting greater support and more expressions of love and care. Youth also identified wanting greater positive feedback regarding rules in the home and also more family time and encouragement from family members. In support of these findings, the literature reflects the variance in the amount of time spent with family, and the amount of parental warmth and encouragement that is available and expressed due to changes in family systems and new socioeconomic responsibilities (Anisef & Kilbride, 2003; Johnson-Motoyama et al., 2012). The decrease in accessibility and quality of support following migration has been described to be a reason for a lower than desired level of parental involvement within the home (Anisef & Kilbride, 2003; Kwak & Berry, 2001). The consistent exchange of warmth, encouragement and love can be particularly beneficial in buffering psychosocial challenges in newcomer families that highly value familism, such as bonding and parental acceptance and approval, as can be found in Latin American families (Chen et al., 2010).

Youth in the study identified wanting more values and rules in the home environment. Although unclear due to methodological limitations, it may be possible that youth desired greater discussion about values in the home. In newcomer families, the occurrence of discrepant values can be common. Between newcomer youth and their parents, the difference in values can increase over time due to the acculturation process as youth begin to integrate more values of the dominant culture. A similar process can occur in relation to rules in the home and family obligations which can also contribute to tension in the home (Phinney et al., 2000). The values difference or greater need for discussion surrounding values in the home is common between parents and children across various cultures, including Western groups in which children can consistently challenge family values and rules. Among newcomer families, however, value discrepancies can be a greater cause of tension in the home as there can be a stronger cultural valuing of respect and obedience towards authority (Phinney et al., 2000). Considering the greater sensitivity to value discrepancy in the parent–child relationship among newcomer families, the wellbeing of the adolescent and the family can be threatened, in addition to familial cohesion and the communication of values (Dennis et al., 2010; Phinney et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2012).

Pairing the discussion of values and rules in the family with the use of greater love, encouragement and family time can increase the levels of familial cohesion, adaptability and satisfaction (Barnes & Olson, 1985). By having greater communication and understanding of values and rules in the home while also allowing for richer expressions of warmth and encouragement, the home environment can be more supportive for newcomer youth and can increase relationship bonds in the home.

Talking More

This study was able to identify the types of communication needed by youth at home. Youth in the present study wanted greater respect, more active listening, more understanding, less judgment, and more open discussions at home. These findings are reflected in the literature. During the migration process, there are various changes that occur within the family system such as the loss of extended family members and the greater reliance on the immediate family as a source of support (Adserà & Tienda, 2012; Kwak & Berry, 2001). Due to socioeconomic factors, newcomer youth can have lowered access to high quality support and nourishment from their family following migration (Gaytan et al., 2007), which may leave them wanting more support and parental engagement. Thus, considering the following systemic changes, it is not surprising that there is a need by youth for greater parent–child discussion, negotiation, and compromise.

With fewer opportunities for communication, it may be expected for youth to be experiencing a sense of emotional distance within the family which can potentially explain youth participants wanting opportunities for richer conversations, along with comfort and support from their families. This need for greater patience, respect, understanding and comfort from parents may also be related to the style of parenting present in the family. Styles fostering parent–child engagement in which there is parental warmth and understanding can promote positive psychosocial adaptation and wellbeing (Kuczyński et al., 2010; Shucksmith et al., 1995) whereas overprotection and disengagement can contribute to psychological challenges among youth (Lim et al., 2009). In addition, a variety of acculturation and adaptation challenges commonly experienced by newcomer adolescents (loss of extended family and friends, expectations of the national culture, pressure to use the national language, pressure to not burden parents with concerns) can overwhelm newcomer youth. Considering the variety of stressors, youth may require additional support from parents by ensuring more comfort, support, patience, active listening, and understanding is present in the parent–child relationship. Furthermore, parallel to the cluster of ‘more positive feedback’, the use of open and direct communication can assist newcomer parents with communicating and instilling more love, encouragement, values and rules with their children while also fostering emotional cohesion (Perreira et al., 2006). With open and effective communication familial misunderstandings rooted in cultural and/or language shifts, acculturation difficulties, and/or intergenerational difficulties can also be minimized and help grow stronger emotional bonds.

Opening Home to My Friends

This concept focused on youths’ needs to build friendships outside of the home, to include these friendships into the home environment, and to find a central point where both parents and youth can share similar interests. Youth stated wanting to integrate their friendships into the home while also gaining a greater connection with their family, as seen in the cluster of ‘more positive feedback’. Parallel to the literature, it was evident that youth wanted to create a balance in their acculturation process by integrating their friendships into the home while maintaining a relationship and an appreciation for their culture of origin and its associated values (Berry et al., 2006). As discussed in the literature, obtaining this balance between ethnic and national identities assists with healthy psychological and sociocultural adaptation particularly when paired with a leaning towards one’s own ethnocultural identity (Berry et al., 2006; Sabatier & Berry, 2008).

Although the integration of both ethnic and national identities can be difficult for newcomer families considering the culture clash of values and beliefs held by collectivistic and individualistic cultural groups (Phinney et al., 2000), a family’s flexibility in integrating such identities can prevent the development of psychosocial and sociocultural challenges associated with preferring a particular identity (Berry et al., 2006). As suggested by Berry, Phinney, Sam, and Vedder (2006), contact with both and ethnic and national peers is a factor that contributes to the integration of the both identities and healthy sociocultural and psychological adaptation in the host society. In addition, sustaining peer relationships can allow for the greater development of self-esteem and a decrease in social challenges that cause stress for newcomer youth (Chuang, Rasmi, & Friesen, 2010; Thomas & Daubman, 2001). Particularly as they are in the process of re-establishing their social networks as newcomers, allowing for opportunities to invite friends into the home and allowing these friendships to grow could foster a sense of belonging, emotional support, as well as practical assistance if it is not readily available at home (Chuang et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Although each family is unique, there are common factors that can contribute to the wellbeing of the family system and individual members of the family unit. This study helped to identify the needs of migrant youth and the very factors that can help improve their home environment. Needs surrounding communication, parenting styles, and the integration of personal and home life are perceived to be beneficial for better supporting the home life of newcomer adolescents.

Through a clinical perspective, a social worker’s, and other clinicians’ understanding of these factors as potential needs for migrant youth can assist with better supporting migrant adolescents throughout the acculturation process. Clinicians can thus help normalize and validate the experience of migrant youth while also helping youth meet their own needs in a healthy manner within the family system. Clinicians can provide youth and their parents with psychoeducation regarding how the needs discussed in this study can influence the psychosocial wellbeing of individual newcomer youth and the family as a whole. Furthermore, helping the family understand the common stressors and challenges experienced by newcomer families and adolescents can particularly help parents be open to providing more positive feedback to their children (love, warmth, encouragement), while also ensuring there is more effective communication regarding family rules, active listening, and greater parent–child understanding. Considering that the style of parenting is closely associated with culture (Selin, 2014), cultural-competency should be used when working clinically with newcomer parents and families by validating and respecting the values and beliefs of the family. A culturally sensitive approach should also be used when discussing and implementing strategies for increasing cultural integration and flexibility within the family system. Through a clinician’s increased understanding of the needs of newcomer youth, the family unit can be professionally supported in making such changes in ways that respect the needs and healthy psychosocial development of all family members. This deeper understanding can also help foster and encourage further building of familial support to help contribute to a support system that provides a sense of coherence, solidarity and belonging.

From a research perspective, this study can assist in developing newcomer programs for families seeking to strengthen parent–youth relationships. Helping to identify factors, such as a family’s style of communication, can help parents better understand their role in supporting their adolescent particularly during the acculturation and integration process. As a result, such contributions to research and program development can aid in highlighting the significance of the acculturation process among newcomer populations. This would not only further research in the field of immigration but would also contribute to the understanding of the importance of familial wellbeing in Canadian immigration policy and can advocate for further federal funding in supporting newcomer families in their integration into Canada.

Two large limitations of this study consisted of its inability to generalize across Canadian immigrant populations and provide a deep analysis of responses of study participants. Data was collected from a medium-sized Canadian city, which limits its applicability to both rural and urban locations in Canada with newcomer populations. Another limitation is the level of depth at which data can be collected through concept mapping. Although there is benefit in involving participants in the research process, responses provided by participants are limited to words and phrases that do not allow for explanation or discussion in group interviews and creates an incomplete understanding of the subject at hand.

Evident in this study, migrant youth expressed their need to have a more supportive family environment that prized warmth, discussion, and openness to integrating youths’ lives with peers into their home. Youth wanting greater positive feedback, comfort and support, and familial understanding also reflects upon the importance of family cohesion in promoting encouragement, greater communication and discussion, as well as further sociocultural integration. Wanting to have greater feedback regarding family values and rules, however, also stresses the idea that, although youth may want to welcome their peers into their family homes, youth still want to maintain a level of balance between Canadian culture and their own heritage.