Chemoecological investigations of the invasive waterweeds Elodea spp.

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2005
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Erhard, Daniela
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Chemisch-ökologische Untersuchungen der invasiven Wasserpest Elodea spp.
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Zusammenfassung

The invasive waterweeds Elodea nuttallii and E. canadensis contain 7-O-diglucuronides of the flavones luteolin, apigenin and chrysoeriol as well as a phenolic acid similar to caffeic acid. Both species often resemble each other morphologically and may be difficult to distinguish. Consequently, there is a great demand of correct species identification. I present a chemotaxonomic method based on the species-specific flavonoid pattern in Elodea that clearly identified even ambiguous specimens. These had primarily been determined as E. canadensis, but turned out to be E. nuttallii. Especially the ratio between the apigenin- and the chrysoeriol-derivative is characteristic, and my results are in full agreement with molecular taxonomy based on distinct length and base pair polymorphism in the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. None of the methods supports evidence for the existence of hybrids between the species, but rather indicate that the distribution of E. nuttallii in Europe is underestimated.
The qualitative pattern of flavonoids in different Elodea species is very stable, but their concentrations vary intraspecifically. Flavonoid biosynthesis is in part regulated by external abiotic signals such as light, temperature or resource availability. In first outdoor and laboratory experiments, high light intensities led to a weak accumulation of the phenolic acid and luteolin-7-O-diglucuronide, but in a second experiment no light effect was detectable. However, plants exposed to natural sun light had higher concentrations of either luteolin- or apigenin- and chrysoeriol-glucuronides, indicating that flavonoids exhibit UV protective properties. Temperature might be negatively correlated with the phenolic acid, apigenin- and chrysoeriol-diglucuronide, but additional CO2 supply had no influence at all.
Elodea species are often associated with low phytoplankton densities or epiphytic covers. In growth assays with extracts from E. canadensis and E. nuttallii, I demonstrated that allelochemicals can suppress growth of different cyanobacterial culture strains and epiphytic autotrophs isolated from submersed macrophytes. Only Scenedesmus brevispina was stimulated. Bioassay guided fractionation yielded hydrophilic and slightly lipophilic active compounds. Among them are phenolic substances, but neither the phenolic acid nor flavonoids were active. Since growth declined also in a moderately lipophilic fraction of culture filtrate of E. nuttallii, I assume that active compounds are exuded in the water. Allelopathy might thus be relevant in situ and suppress phytoplankton and epiphytes. The differences in the susceptibility of target organisms could (1) at least partly arise from adaptation to the respective host plants and (2) indicate that allelopathic interference might reduce the abundance of some species, especially cyanobacteria, in epiphytic biofilms.
Herbivorous larvae of the aquatic moth Acentria ephemerella can severely damage plants like Potamogeton spp. and Myriophyllum spicatum. In contrast, larvae are never found on Elodea nuttallii and avoid feeding on E. canadensis. Using no-choice assays, I showed that E. nuttallii strongly reduces larval growth, independent of culture conditions under which plants were grown. Elodea exposed to high light intensities further increases larval mortality. These results indicate that a negative impact on the fitness of Acentria might be the ultimate reason for the avoidance of Elodea in the field. Neither morphological defences nor nitrogen or phosphorus content of food plants explained these effects, suggesting that allelochemicals (probably flavonoids present in E. nuttallii, but absent in other common host plants of Acentria) are responsible for the reduced growth.
Coating Potamogeton leaf disks with Elodea extracts or flavonoids deterred larvae from feeding of this otherwise preferred food source, and yet unknown compounds present in the extracts reduced growth and survival of Acentria. My study is the first, in which larvae were successfully fed with plant secondary metabolites. The concentrations of flavonoids in the assays were at the lower range of concentrations found in the field, indicating that chemical defence in E. nuttallii might be ecologically relevant. The related E. canadensis produces the same flavonoids and might be similarly defended.
My studies on the chemical ecology of E. canadensis and E. nuttallii revealed that both species produce allelochemicals, which can assure the access to limiting resources and prevent severe loss of biomass. In contrast to the predictions of the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis, Elodea spp. thus demonstrate that invasive species might well be chemically defended. This trait can complement their tolerance towards environmental heterogeneity and strengthen the competitive ability of Elodea.

Zusammenfassung in einer weiteren Sprache

Die Wasserpest-Arten Elodea nuttallii und E. canadensis enthalten 7-O-diglucuronide der Flavone Luteolin, Apigenin und Chrysoeriol sowie eine phenolische Verbindung mit Ähnlichkeit zu Kaffeesäure. Morphologisch ähneln sich beide Arten und können häufig nur schwer unterschieden werden. Daher ist die Nachfrage nach eindeutigen Bestimmungsmerkmalen groß. Ich stelle eine chemotaxonomische Methode vor, die auf artspezifischen Flavonoid-Mustern basiert und morphologisch nicht eindeutig bestimmbare Pflanzenexemplare sicher identifiziert. Ursprünglich als E. canadensis bestimmt, stellten sich diese jedoch als E. nuttallii heraus. Meine Ergebnisse stimmen voll mit denen einer molekularbiologischen Methode überein, die auf Längen- und Basenpaarunterschieden der internal transcribed spacers (ITS) basiert. Keine der Methoden liefert Hinweise auf mögliche Hybride zwischen den Elodea-Arten. Sie zeigen vielmehr, dass die Verbreitung von E. nuttallii eher unterschätzt wird.
Das Auftreten der Flavonoide in den Elodea-Arten ist sehr stabil, aber die Konzentrationen schwanken intraspezifisch. Die Flavonoid-Biosynthese wird teilweise durch externe Faktoren wie Licht, Temperatur oder Nährstoffverfügbarkeit reguliert. In ersten Freiland- und Laborversuchen führten hohe Lichtintensitäten zu einer leichten Anreicherung der phenolischen Säure und Luteolin-7-O-diglucuronid, wohingegen in einem zweiten Versuch kein Licht-Effekt festgestellt werden konnte. Allerdings enthielten Pflanzen, die Sonnenlicht ausgesetzt waren, entweder höhere Konzentrationen an Luteolin- oder an Apigenin- und Chrysoeriol-Diglucuroniden. Dies weist auf einen möglichen UV-Schutz durch diese Verbindungen hin. Die Temperatur scheint negativ mit der phenolischen Säure sowie Apigenin- und Chrysoeriol-Diglucuronid zu korrelieren, während CO2-Düngung überhaupt keinen Einfluss hatte.
Elodea-Arten werden häufig mit niedrigen Phytoplanktondichten und schwachem Epiphytenbewuchs in Verbindung gebracht. In meinen Versuchen mit Extrakten aus Elodea hemmten Allelochemikalien das Wachstum verschiedener Kultur-Cyanobakterien und epiphytischer autotropher Organismen, die von submersen Makrophyten isoliert wurden. Lediglich das Wachstum von Scenedesmus brevispina wurde gesteigert. Die weitere Auftrennung von Extrakten lieferte hydrophile und schwach lipophile aktive Komponenten, u.a. auch phenolischen Verbindungen. Jedoch waren weder die phenolische Säure noch die Flavonoide aus Elodea aktiv. Da auch schwach lipophile Substanzen aus dem Umgebungswasser von E. nuttallii zu schwächerem Wachstum führten, vermute ich, dass aktive Substanzen ins Wasser ausgeschieden werden. Daher sollte Allelopathie auch in situ relevant sein und das Wachstum von Phytoplankton und Epiphyten hemmen. Die unterschiedliche Sensibilität der Testorganismen könnte (1) durch Anpassung an die jeweilige Wirtspflanze bedingt sein und (2) darauf hinweisen, dass Allelopathie insbesondere das Auftreten von Cyanobakterien in epiphytischen Biofilmen verhindern kann.
Herbivore Larven der aquatischen Motte Acentria ephemerella können immensen Schaden an Wasserpflanzen anrichten. Larven werden jedoch nie auf E. nuttallii beobachtet, und sie meiden E. canadensis als Futter. Ich konnte mit Hilfe von no-choice Testdesigns zeigen, dass E. nuttallii das Wachstum dieser Larven stark vermindert, unabhängig von den Bedingungen, unter denen die Pflanze gewachsen war. Weiterhin erhöhte Elodea, die hohen Lichtintensitäten ausgesetzt war, die Mortalität der Raupen. Dies weist darauf hin, dass der schädliche Einfluss auf die Fitness von Acentria der ultimative Grund für das Meiden von Elodea im Freiland ist. Weder morphologische Verteidigungsstrukturen noch Stickstoff- oder Phosphatgehalt der Pflanzen erklären die Effekte. Dies lässt vermuten, dass Allelochemikalien (möglicherweise die Flavonoide, die nur in Elodea, nicht aber in den üblichen Futterpflanzen von Acentria vorhanden sind) das reduzierte Wachstum bedingen.
Beschichtet man bevorzugte Futterpflanzen mit Elodea-Extrakt oder Flavonoiden, verhindert dies den Fraß. Das Extrakt reduziert außerdem Wachstum und Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit. Mir ist es zum ersten Mal gelungen, Acentria-Larven erfolgreich mit pflanzlichen Sekundärmetaboliten zu füttern. Die Flavonoidkonzentrationen in den Versuchen lagen im unteren Bereich natürlich vorkommender Konzentrationen, weshalb chemische Verteidigung in Elodea ökologisch relevant sein kann.
Meine Arbeiten mit E. canadensis und E. nuttallii ergaben, dass beide Arten Allelochemikalien produzieren, die einen sicheren Nährstoffzugang ermöglichen und erheblichen Biomasseverlust durch Fraß verhindern. Im Gegensatz zu den Vorhersagen der evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) Hypothese, verdeutlicht das Beispiel der Wasserpest, dass invasive Arten sehr wohl chemisch verteidigt sein können. Diese Eigenschaft kann die Toleranz gegenüber schwankenden Umweltbedingungen ergänzen und die Konkurrenzstärke von Elodea erhöhen.

Fachgebiet (DDC)
570 Biowissenschaften, Biologie
Schlagwörter
chemical defence, allelopathy, herbivory, submersed macrophytes, taxonomy
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ISO 690ERHARD, Daniela, 2005. Chemoecological investigations of the invasive waterweeds Elodea spp. [Dissertation]. Konstanz: University of Konstanz
BibTex
@phdthesis{Erhard2005Chemo-8788,
  year={2005},
  title={Chemoecological investigations of the invasive waterweeds Elodea spp.},
  author={Erhard, Daniela},
  address={Konstanz},
  school={Universität Konstanz}
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Temperature might be negatively correlated with the phenolic acid, apigenin- and chrysoeriol-diglucuronide, but additional CO2 supply had no influence at all.&lt;br /&gt;Elodea species are often associated with low phytoplankton densities or epiphytic covers. In growth assays with extracts from E. canadensis and E. nuttallii, I demonstrated that allelochemicals can suppress growth of different cyanobacterial culture strains and epiphytic autotrophs isolated from submersed macrophytes. Only Scenedesmus brevispina was stimulated. Bioassay guided fractionation yielded hydrophilic and slightly lipophilic active compounds. Among them are phenolic substances, but neither the phenolic acid nor flavonoids were active. Since growth declined also in a moderately lipophilic fraction of culture filtrate of E. nuttallii, I assume that active compounds are exuded in the water. Allelopathy might thus be relevant in situ and suppress phytoplankton and epiphytes. The differences in the susceptibility of target organisms could (1) at least partly arise from adaptation to the respective host plants and (2) indicate that allelopathic interference might reduce the abundance of some species, especially cyanobacteria, in epiphytic biofilms.&lt;br /&gt;Herbivorous larvae of the aquatic moth Acentria ephemerella can severely damage plants like Potamogeton spp. and Myriophyllum spicatum. In contrast, larvae are never found on Elodea nuttallii and avoid feeding on E. canadensis. Using no-choice assays, I showed that E. nuttallii strongly reduces larval growth, independent of culture conditions under which plants were grown. Elodea exposed to high light intensities further increases larval mortality. These results indicate that a negative impact on the fitness of Acentria might be the ultimate reason for the avoidance of Elodea in the field. Neither morphological defences nor nitrogen or phosphorus content of food plants explained these effects, suggesting that allelochemicals (probably flavonoids present in E. nuttallii, but absent in other common host plants of Acentria) are responsible for the reduced growth.&lt;br /&gt;Coating Potamogeton leaf disks with Elodea extracts or flavonoids deterred larvae from feeding of this otherwise preferred food source, and yet unknown compounds present in the extracts reduced growth and survival of Acentria. My study is the first, in which larvae were successfully fed with plant secondary metabolites. The concentrations of flavonoids in the assays were at the lower range of concentrations found in the field, indicating that chemical defence in E. nuttallii might be ecologically relevant. The related E. canadensis produces the same flavonoids and might be similarly defended.&lt;br /&gt;My studies on the chemical ecology of E. canadensis and E. nuttallii revealed that both species produce allelochemicals, which can assure the access to limiting resources and prevent severe loss of biomass. In contrast to the predictions of the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis, Elodea spp. thus demonstrate that invasive species might well be chemically defended. This trait can complement their tolerance towards environmental heterogeneity and strengthen the competitive ability of Elodea.</dcterms:abstract>
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